New York City, with 520 miles of coastline, is extremely susceptible to the harmful effects of sea level rise, such as inundation and saltwater intrusion. Sea level rise affects nearly every agency and element of NYC life. It has destructive effects on parks, transportation, sanitation, infrastructure, and much more.This project will focus on how the Department of Parks and Recreation (DPR) and NYC parks are flexibly adapting to sea level rise.

In 2007, Mayor Bloomberg introduced PlaNYC, an initiative undertaken by 25 NYC agencies, including the Parks Department, to improve NYC’s resilience to climate change. Through PlaNYC programs, the DPR is employing various flexible adaptation techniques to sea level rise, such as increasing vegetation that absorbs seawater and assembling guidelines for more resilient parks. However, NYC parks currently lack adequate infrastructure to protect themselves from major natural disasters, as was evident after Hurricane Sandy.
 

Contents

1. An Overview of Sea Level Rise in NYC
2. The Science Behind Why the Sea Level Rises
3. Projections for Sea Level Rise in NYC
4. Adaptive Measures to Sandy Flooding in NYC
5. Adaptive Measures Taken by NYC Parks
6. Parks After Hurricane Sandy
7. The Problems with the Park’s Adaptation Techniques
8. Protecting our Park’s Shorelines
9. Case Study: Brooklyn Bridge Park (Before and After Sandy)
10. Case Study: Governors Island (Before and After Sandy)
11. Global Perspective: Sea Level Rise in the Sundarbans
12. Danger the Sundarbans
13. Effects We Have Seen So Far
14. Adaptation in the Sundarbans
15. Citations

 
 

An Overview of Sea Level Rise in NYC

Over the past century, the sea level has risen about an inch over each decade due to thermal expansion and the melting of ice caps and glaciers. Thermal expansion and the melting of ice caps and glaciers have been increasing due to various environmental and anthropogenic factors, namely the increased emission of greenhouse gases. Sea level rise spells more intense flooding from extreme climate events, such as the disastrous Hurricane Sandy that hit NYC in October 2012. [1]

 
 
The Science Behind Why the Sea Level Rises

All objects expand when temperature increases. The volume of the ocean starts increasing when its temperature is above 4 degrees Celsius by means of thermal expansion. When water expands, the tide pushes further inland than usual. The average depth of the ocean is about 5 km and there are two main levels of depth, which are thermally isolated. The pycnocline zone is the transition layer between the deep and surface layers of the ocean and it regulates the overall temperature of the ocean; however, if the temperature of the sea drastically changes, it is difficult for the pycnocline layer to keep up with creating a temperature equilibrium and as a result the sea can expand in some areas.

 
 
Projections for Sea Level Rise in NYC

The New York City Panel on Climate Change (NPCC), which is a part of PlaNYC, is an expert panel convened by Mayor Bloomberg to advise the city on climate change and risk management, in addition to providing climate change projections for NYC. NPCC predicted two sets of sea level rise projections for NYC by down scaling the global climate models of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) to take local conditions into account.

The first projection, based on current trends of ice sheet melting, predicts a 2-5 inch sea level increase in the NYC region by the 2020s, a 7-12 inch increase by the 2050s, and a 12-23 inch increase by the 2050s.

The second scenario is based on the same data as the first, but takes into account observations of accelerated ice sheet melting and paleoclimate data from ice cores, tree rings, and other sources. The rapid ice melt scenario projects a 5-10 inch sea level increase in the NYC region by the 2020s, a 19-29 inch increase by the 2050s, and a 41-55 inch increase by the 2080s. [4]

 
 
Adaptive Measures to Sandy Flooding in NYC

NYC took some adaptive measures, which were influenced and informed by the NPCC, to prepare for flooding from Sandy. For example, the city government implemented a flood evacuation plan whereby residents of Zone A were urged to evacuate their homes. Additionally, the Metropolitan Transit Authority planned ahead of time to close the subway after Sandy.

 
 
Adaptive Measures Taken by NYC Parks

The Department of Parks & Recreation is planting more trees and vegetation in parks and in other public spaces. “Greening the cityscape” will lessen the effects of sea level rise since trees and vegetation have the ability to absorb huge amounts of sea water that inundate low lying areas. Additionally, trees and vegetation consume excess carbon dioxide, thus cleaning the air we breathe.

As part of PlaNYC, Mayor Bloomberg started the Greenstreets program in partnership with the Parks Department. The aim of the Greenstreets Program is to increase roadside vegetation in over 300 areas. Another PlaNYC initiative that is partnered with the Parks Department is MillionTreesNYC, whose goal is to plant and care for one million trees throughout the city over the next decade. Also, by 2030, the Department of Parks and Recreation plans to reforest around 2,000 acres of parkland. [42]

The Parks Department is researching other methods of improving the stability and durability of NYC parks, as they lie vulnerable to extreme inundation, habitat destruction, and saltwater incursion. As part of PlaNYC, the Department of Parks and Recreation teamed up with the Design Trust for Public Space, a nonprofit organization whose aim is to improve public spaces in NYC, and released a set of High Performance Landscape Guidelines for 21^st century NYC parks. The guidelines, released on January 6, 2011, were assembled by landscape architects and specialists to change the way that NYC parks and open spaces are designed, built, and maintained. The guidelines provide knowledge for creating park and open space landscapes that are sustainable and resilient to climate change, namely the effects of sea level rise. [8]

By making more room for vegetation and minimizing hard surfaces, the resilience of parks to sea level rise is strengthened, as more vegetation is available to absorb increased amounts of seawater. The guidelines suggest that the development of hard surfaces, such as bike trails and boardwalks, be minimized and that such hard surfaces be strategically placed so as to avoid dissecting, diminishing, or disturbing preservation areas. In addition, regulatory requirements restrict shading from elevated walkways and structures, so as to maximize the amount of sunshine that the vegetation receives. Access to restoration areas should be restricted through fencing or natural barriers, such as logs, so as to prevent accidental destruction. [9]

The guidelines suggest that new species of plants and animals that can tolerate sporadic inundation and are less sensitive to salty seawater be introduced into parks. [9]

The guidelines also suggest that storm water planter boxes be used to capture runoff from small storm events, which are exacerbated by sea level rise. Storm water planter boxes also provide water quality treatment, which curbs the negative effects of saltwater intrusion. The devices are very practical in high water tables, which includes portions of Queens, Brooklyn and Staten Island.

The guidelines stress the importance of protecting soil found in parks since it provides a base to absorb seawater. Healthy soil allows rainwater to penetrate, which reduces flooding, erosion, and excess runoff. The guidelines suggest using compost, which is an aerobically decomposed organic waste that improves saltwater retention and overall soil quality.[9]

 
 
Parks After Hurricane Sandy

The Department of Parks & Recreation’s main objective immediately following Hurricane Sandy was clean up and recovery, specifically dealing with fallen trees and inundation of parks near the coastline. The Parks Department closed many parks immediately following Sandy due to destruction, though the majority of such parks were reopened within a week or two after the storm. However, many parks remain closed as of December 8, 2012.

Manhattan Beach Park remained closed as of December 8, 2012 until further notice. Noah Cohen, a resident of Manhattan Beach, said “Until Sandy, I’d taken a jog through Manhattan Beach Park almost every day for fifteen years. It’s been over four weeks and the park is still closed.”

 

 

 

 

 

 

Similarly, Crotona Park Community Center, Crotons Park Nature Center, Kingsbridge Heights Community Center, Noble Playground, Orchard Beach Nature Center, Pelham Bay Nature Center, and Van Cortlandt Nature Center are some of the other parks that were also closed as of December 8, 2012 until further notice.

The Parks Department, as of December 8, 2012, is requesting that volunteers contact 311 to aid in post-Sandy recovery and cleanup of parks. [11]

 
 
The Problems with the Park’s Adaptation Techniques

Though the Park’s Department took adaptive measures to sea level rise, they did not prove effective in the face of an actual sea level rise scenario. PlaNYC‘s Greenstreets and MillionTreesNYC programs planted trees and vegetation mostly in streets and therefore the programs were not helpful to parks. The reforestation efforts have not been implemented in enough parks yet, as most parks were not reforested by the Park’s Department.

The High Performance Landscape Guidelines provide extremely helpful information and according to the guidelines’ press release, they “create a base of common knowledge for the Parks Department’s staff as well as private consultants, contractors, and community groups.” However, it is not clear how many parks have actually implemented the practices recommended by the guidelines. The guidelines are a long term effort that have not been adopted en masse, therefore they were not helpful during Sandy.

Though increasing vegetation and adopting the ideas from the guidelines are integral in curbing effects of sea level rise, further action is necessary so as to really protect the parks themselves from a major disaster. Many parks that lie near the coastline were ravaged by Sandy, leaving residents without public parks for an extended period of time. Parks’ adaptation must come in the form of elevation and hard protective infrastructure, as well. However, such adaptation strategies for coastline parks are not mentioned in PlaNYC.

There are two types of protective infrastructure: soft and hard. Hard infrastructure refers to man-made structures that hold back water, such as seawalls, jetties, and piers. Soft infrastructure refers to natural structures that revitalize the area near the water, such as wetland restoration and beach nourishment.

The chances of parks receiving hard protective infrastructure from the city seems bleak, as the New York Times reported that Mayor Bloomberg does not plan on implementing sea walls at all in NYC. According to the Times, Bloomberg stated, “It would be nice if we could stop the tides from coming in, but King Canute couldn’t do it, and neither can we.” King Canute was a medieval Danish ruler that commanded the tide to turn away. The tide did not heed King Canute, which the king cited as proof that no man could not tame nature. Bloomberg’s defeatist attitude and refusal to build sea walls could prove dangerous in the face of a climate change disaster. [13]

 
 
Protecting our Park’s Shorelines

Vision 2020, led by the Department of City Planning, is a plan for improving NYC’s waterfront and waterways by 2020. The vision has many goals, such as increasing the use of waterfronts for parks and expanding the use of waterways for transportation. According to the document, “Vision 2020 focuses on adaptation strategies for our waterfront and waterways to build climate resilience in response to existing and projected climate hazards.” [14]

The resilience of parks and recreational areas on the coastline should be strengthened as part of Vision 2020‘s goal to increase the resilience of waterfronts to sea level rise. However, none of Vision 2020‘s 130 key projects deal with elevating coastline parks and recreational areas or providing them with protective infrastructure.

Vision 2020 suggests certain adaptation strategies to sea level rise. Such strategies, which could be implemented in parks, include:

• Creating soft edges, or graduated edges on shorelines, such as the ones in Brooklyn Bridge Park. The benefits of soft edges include reduced speed and force of tidal action and waves, thereby limiting inundation, erosion, and damage from sea level rise.

• Raising the elevation of land, so that eroded beaches can be restored and establishing dunes can prevent recurrent beach erosion. Elevating low-lying development sites and streets by adding fill can reduce their vulnerability.

• Implementing dikes, levees, and floodgates. [14]

Some parks are planning to implement such adaptive measures to sea level rise. However, these parks do not represent the majority.

Further information on NYC’s adaptation to sea level rise, vis a vis protective infrastructure, buildings, insurance, and electric grids, can be viewed on the Buildings portion of the website.

 
 
Case Study I: Brooklyn Bridge Park

Brooklyn Bridge Park Before Sandy

Brooklyn Bridge Park (BBP), located between the East River and DUMBO, built some protective infrastructure from sea level rise before Sandy hit.

A New York Times article from September 10, 2012 reported that “porous riprap rock and a soft edge of salt-resistant grass have been laid in to help absorb the punch of a storm surge” at BBP. [16]

Brooklyn Bridge Park After Sandy

Brooklyn Bridge Park opened shortly after Sandy hit, though the park’s adaptive measures did not prove effective. BBP was swamped during Sandy, ruining the new carousel. Post-Sandy, Brooklyn Bridge Park lacks much of its usual vibrant color and many trees did not shed their leaves as per their usual schedule, as saltwater incursion messed with the usual process. [18]

Since Sandy, BBP Corporation has been discussing whether to use hard or soft infrastructure to prevent further damage from future effects of sea level rise.

Erosion problems are often times associated with hard infrastructure, though hard infrastructure provides better protection. The soft approach is a fair option to consider, as NYC’s coastline has extensive beaches, coastal wetlands, and  built-up areas.

BBP serves as a beacon of how waterfront parks should be seriously planning to deal with the effects of sea level rise.

 
 

Case Study II: Governors Island

Governors Island Before Sandy

Figure 13 :

Governors Island is a 172 acre site in New York Harbor that includes popular parks and public spaces, though the area is not under the purview of the Park’s Department. Much of Governors Island is flat landfill that lies below the elevation of where the NPCC projects the 1-in-100-year flood level to be in 2100. Additionally, trees on Governors Island depend on salt-free groundwater.

Before Sandy hit, Governors Island was taking climate change seriously by remodeling areas to be more resilient to climate change. The Trust for Governors Island (TGI) designed and adopted a multi-phase, mixed-use development strategy to reactivate the island by creating 87 acres of new parkland and public spaces that are resilient to sea level rise. [20]

A substantial portion of the new parkland will be raised and shaped around the elevation of the projected 1-in-100-year flood. The root levels of the island’s new trees will be raised above projected flood zones using both subtle and dramatic changes in topography. Parkland in the projected flood zone will feature plants that can thrive on salty groundwater. More than 19 acres of impermeable paved surface will be replaced with lawn, plantings, and permeable pavement, thus improving the island’s absorption of seawater. [21]

Governors Island After Sandy

Thankfully, Sandy did not create any long-lasting damage on Governors Island. The Historic District, which includes all landmark buildings and the Governors Island National Monument, is still in good condition. There was an extensive amount of debris on the island, many trees were uprooted, and repairs were needed for damaged fencing. TGI, Turner construction and HMS Global, a company that runs the Governors Island ferry, worked together on the Island’s clean up and recovery. There is currently no plan to add protective infrastructure, such as sea walls and levees, to the island.


 
 

Global Perspective: Sea Level Rise in the Sundarbans

Excess emission of greenhouse gases has global climate change ramifications. Looking at international impacts of and adaptation to climate change is extremely important for many reasons.

It is important that countries that emit massive amounts of carbon dioxide understand the consequences of their actions on an international scale. As Mitt Romney said, it is “global warming, not America warming.” [23] Low lying areas such as the Sundarbans, which are not major contributors to climate change, often bear the brunt of the effects of climate change. Often, such areas, including the Sundarbans, have a low GDP, further exacerbating the effects of climate change in the area, since the people and government are not financially able to adapt to climate change.

It is also important to look at how other areas adapt to climate change since it is possible to learn adaptation techniques from them.

Introduction to the Sundarbans

Map of the Sundurbans [24]

The Sundarbans is an area shared by India and Bangladesh, lying southeast of Calcutta and in the 24-Parganas District of West Bengal. The Sundarbans is near the Ganges River and makes up a portion of the Gangetic Delta, which is on the border on the Bay of Bengal. The Sundarbans National Park, a UNESCO World Heritage Site, lies in the heart of the Sundarbans. In addition to housing the world’s largest mangrove forest, the area is a rich ecosystem with much biodiversity. The Sundarbans houses over 50 reptile species, 300 bird species, 45 mammal species, 120 commercial fish species, and between 250 and 400 tigers. It is estimated that the Sundarbans houses up to 10 percent of the remaining tiger population worldwide. [25]

 
 
Danger in the Sundurbans

Due to global emissions of greenhouse gases, the sea level is rising and encroaching on the Sundarbans. In the business-as-usual scenario, it is expected that a quarter of the inhabitable Sundarbans will be lost by 2020. Even though global sea level rise is around 2 millimeters/year, the Sundarbans experiences an increase of 3.14 millimeter/year. A one-meter rise in sea level would have catastrophic consequences, inundating the entire Sundurbans and around 17 percent of Bangladesh. [26]

Sea level rise also causes coastal erosion in the Sundarbans, which lessens the landmass. At the current rate of coastal erosion, it is expected that 15% of farmlands and over 250 square km of the National Park will disappear in the next 20 years. [26]A 2007 report by UNESCO, “Case Studies on Climate Change and World Heritage” stated that by the end of 21^st century, 75% of the mangroves in the Sundarbans could be destroyed due to climate change.[27]

Inundation of the Sundurbans means that millions will die and countless environmental refugees will be displaced from their homes. Monetary losses will abound in an already impoverished area. The Sundarbans’ mangrove ecosystem protects further inland areas, such as Kolkata, from tropical cyclones originating in the Bay of Bengal. If the mangroves of the Sundurbans are destroyed, cities like Kolkata will fall prey to the higher tides and more intense storms from the Bay of Bengal.[28]

Sea level rise could cause the tiger habitat of the Sundarbans to diminish by as much as 96 percent, leaving only about 20 breeding tigers. Endangering the tigers endangers the delicate ecosystem the Earth has in place and could lead to an ecological catastrophe.[29]

Sundurban mangroves [30]

 
 
Effects We Have Seen So Far

In the last two decades, four islands in the Sundurbans have been submerged, leaving over 6,000 families from islands such as Bedford and Lohachara as environmental refugees. Almost half of the 102 Sundurban islands, such as Sagar Island, are uninhabited due to inundation and coastal erosion.[27]

The agricultural growth of the Sundarbans has declined due to sea level rise, which causes coastal erosion and saltwater incursion. Therefore, many Sundarbans left their homes and send remittances to those who remain.[31]

Kalyan Rudra, a member of the National Flood Disaster Management in the Sundurbans, said, “Delta-building is impeded by the action of destructive waves continuously eroding the land.”[33]

Around 20% of the Tiger Reserve in the Sundurbans is inundated.[27]

Royal Bengal Tiger, housed in the Sundurbans [34]

Cyclone Aila, intensified by sea level rise, hit the Sundarbans in 2009, with winds over 120 km/hr. Hundreds of people died, thousands were missing, tigers died as well, and mangroves were uprooted. [27]Sea level rise spells an increased intensity of similar natural disasters.

Man fleeing his home after Cyclone Aila [35]

 
 
Adaptation in the Sundarbans

The Sundarbans houses a poor population that is not economically resilient to climate change. The adaptation currently taking place is mostly focused on helping the people and not on protecting the Sundarbans National Park.

An immediate adaptive measure being taken by the Sundarban people is planting mangroves to inhibit coastal erosion, so that the islands will last longer. Additionally, farmers changed crop types and shifted planting times to adapt to saltwater incursion and increased inundation. Communities started constructing mud barrages to protect themselves against sea level rise.[32]

WWF logo [36]

The WWF, or the World Wildlife Fund, has helped tremendously in the Sundarbans. Mousini Island is extremely susceptible to sea level rise, among other effects of climate change such as tidal waves and rising salinity. WWF-India predicts that the southern portion of the island will lose 15% of its landmass by the year 2020.[37]

WWF-India, in partnership with WWF-Netherlands, Hewlett-Packard, and GTZ, recently placed a Climate Adaptation Centre on Mousini Island that helps the residents of the island and neighboring areas deal with climate change. The Centre boasts an electronic early warning system that alerts Jadavpur University in Kolkata in the event of a natural disaster. The Centre also has kits for disaster preparedness and relief, which includes stretchers and other medical equipment. A Disaster Management Team, made up of island youth, has been trained to assist the community in case of climate change.[37]

Additionally, WWF-India has inaugurated a Climate Change Programme that helps other Sundurbans, not just those on Mousini Island, adapt to the impacts of sea level rise. WWF-India has reintroduced salt-tolerant rice plants and fish that live in higher salinity to farmers so that they can sustain a livelihood despite saltwater incursion. WWF-India has also raised awareness by reaching out to local communities and policy makers to take action in helping the Sundarbans.[38]

WWF-India has set up a high school as a disaster relief shelter that can house between 1200 and 1500 locals. WWF-India has also trained and equipped over 200 individuals to comprise disaster management teams. Five teams are recognized by the local governments and receive state funding.[38]

The vulnerability of the Sundarbans, aside from geographical disadvantages, lies in poor infrastructure, education, and healthcare. WWF-India has comprised Vision 2050, whose goal is to improve climate change resilience and the quality of life in the Sundarbans. Some of the visions include constructing embankments and increasing local participation in government.[38]

The Role of Government in Adaptation

The Bangladeshi government has not addressed the present or future environmental refugees. Though the government implemented the 2009 Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan, which “ensure[s] that the poorest and most vulnerable in society are protected from climate change,” vulnerable Sundarbans have not received adequate protection from the effects of sea level rise.[39] In fact, according to Chandra Bhushan, Deputy Director-General of the Centre for Science and Environment, “Development planning in Indian Sundarbans has never included climate change or its impacts within its purview of things – and this is quite evident from the way everything from electrification to land management is being done here.”

Cover of the Bangladesh Climate Change Strategy and Action Plan [40]

Though West Bengal adopted a disaster management plan in 2005, the plan was never implemented, as is evident from the recent aftermath of Cyclone Aila. [41]

The Indian government has been equally slow to action in helping out in the Sundurbans.

 
 
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